Friday, August 15, 2014
Thursday, August 14, 2014
ESA Science & Technology: Engineering
ESA Science & Technology: Engineering
The
Service Module consists of a closed box, shaped around a hollow central
cone, and comprises the lower and upper platforms as well as four side
panels, on which all satellite bus units are installed. The functions
provided by the Service Module (SVM) are:
The
Service Module consists of a closed box, shaped around a hollow central
cone, and comprises the lower and upper platforms as well as four side
panels, on which all satellite bus units are installed. The functions
provided by the Service Module (SVM) are:
- The primary
and secondary structures to interface with the launcher adapter, to
support the subsystem units, and to interface with and support the
Mirror Support Platform and the Telescope Tube - The thermal
control to maintain the SVM units and equipment within specified
temperature limits, and to provide a very strictly controlled thermal
environment for the mirror assemblies - The Attitude and Orbit
Control System (AOCS) for precise pointing/slewing in all operational
modes, and for the performance of orbit acquisition/maintenance via the
RCS propulsion system (reaction Control System) - The On-Board
Data Handling (OBHD) for the decoding of ground telecommands, the
distribution of ground on-board commands, the sampling and formatting of
telemetry data, and central on-board time distribution - The
Radio Frequency System (RFS), operating in S-band, ensuring
communications with the ground stations and providing a ranging mode for
orbit determination - The Electrical Power Subsystem (EPSS)
for the generation and distribution of regulated power to all equipment
via a 28 V main bus
 |
| An exploded view of the XMM Service Module, with its side panels open. Thanks to its particular shape, with a large central hole of 2.10 m diameter, the XMM bus can be used to accommodate a large variety of payloads. |
| < Previous article: Structural Design | Next article: Attitude and Orbital Control Systems (AOCS) > |
Last Update: 19 September 2011
14-Aug-2014 20:01 UT
Sunday, August 10, 2014
Kabaddi Kart
Kabaddi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Kabadi (disambiguation).
Kabaddi initially came from the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent, and remains popular throughout South Asia, and has also spread to Southeast Asia, Japan and Iran. It is the national game of Bangladesh where it is known as Hadudu. It is the state game of Tamil Nadu where it is said to be founded as Sadugudu, Andhra Pradesh,Bihar and Maharashtra in India. It is played by the British Army for fun, to keep fit and as an enticement to recruit soldiers from the British Asian community.
India won the 2013 Kabaddi World Cup held at Guru Nanak Stadium, Ludhiana, (Punjab) India.
Contents
Rubrics
In the international team version of kabaddi, two teams of seven members each occupy opposite halves of a field of 10 m × 13 m in case of men and 8 m × 12 m in case of women.[2] Each has three supplementary players held in reserve. The game is played with 20-minute halves and a five-minute halftime break during which the teams exchange sides.The rules of the game are as follows. The teams take turns sending a "raider" into the other half. To win a point, the raider must take a breath, run into the opposing half, tag one or more members of the opposite team, then return to his home half before inhaling again.[3] The raider will chant "kabaddi, kabaddi" with his exhaling breath to show the referee he has not inhaled.[3]
The raider will be declared "out" and will not gain the point if he inhales before returning to his side, or returns without touching an opponent.[3] The tagged defender(s) will be "out" if they do not succeed in catching the raider who tagged them.[3] Wrestling the raider to the ground can prevent him escaping before he needs to inhale.[3]
Defenders may not cross the centre line (the "lobby") of the field and the raider may not cross the boundary lines. However, there is one bonus line which can grant extra points for the raider if he manages to touch it and return successfully.
Players who are out are temporarily sent off the field. Each time a player is out, the opposing team earns a point. A team scores a bonus of two points (called a "lona"), if the entire opposing team is declared out. At the end of the game, the team with the most points wins.
Matches are categorised based on age and weight. Six officials supervise a match: one referee, two umpires, a scorer and two assistant scorers.
Types of Kabaddi
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This section does not cite any references or sources. (January 2013) |
Sanjeevani
In Sanjeevani Kabaddi, one player is revived against one player of the opposite team who is out, one out, one in. The duration, the number of players, dimensions of the court, etc. have been fixed by the Kabaddi Federation of India. This form of Kabaddi is the closest to the present game. In this form of Kabaddi, players are put out and revived and the game lasts 40 minutes with a 5-minute break in between. There are nine players on each side. The team that puts out all the players on the opponent's side scores four extra points for a 'Lona'. The winning team is the one that scores most points after 40 minutes. The field is bigger in this form of Kabaddi and the 'chant' different in various regions. Modern Kabaddi resembles this form of Kabaddi especially with regard to 'out & in system' and 'Lona'.Gaminee
This is played with seven players on either side, in a field of no specific measurements. The characteristic is that a player put out has to remain out until all his team members are out. The team that is successful in putting out all the players of the opponent's side secures a point. This is akin to the present system of 'Lona'. After all the players are put out, the team is revived and the game continues. The game continues until five or seven 'Lona' are secured. This form of Kabaddi has no fixed game time. The main disadvantage of the Gaminee type is that the player is not in position to give his best performance since he is likely to remain out for the better part of the match until a Lona is scored.History and development
Kabaddi was introduced and popularised in Japan in 1979. The Asian Amateur Kabaddi Federation sent Professor Sundar Ram of India to tour Japan for two months to introduce the game.
In 1979, a return test between Bangladesh and India was held at different places of India including Mumbai,Bihar, Hyderabad, and Punjab. The Asian Kabaddi Championship was arranged in 1980 and India emerged as champion and Bangladesh runner-up. Bangladesh became runner-up again in 1985 in the Asian Kabaddi Championship held in Jaipur, India. The other teams in the tournament were Nepal, Malaysia and Japan. The game was included for the first time in the Asian Games in Beijing in 1990. India, China, Japan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh took part. India won the gold medal and has also won gold at the following six Asian Games in Hiroshima in 1994, Bangkok in 1998, Busan in 2002, Doha in 2006 and Guangzhou in 2010.
An attempt to popularise kabaddi in Great Britain was carried out by Channel 4, who commissioned a programme dedicated to the sport. The programme, Kabaddi in the early 1990s, however, failed to capture viewer attention despite fixtures such as West Bengal Police versus the Punjab. Kabaddi was axed in 1992, but not before its presenter Krishnan Guru-Murthy suffered a collapsed lung while participating in the sport.[5][better source needed] Alt-rock band The Cooper Temple Clause formed a kabbadi team in 2001 and were, at one stage, ranked seventh in the British domestic standings.[5][better source needed]
In the 1998 Asian games held at Bangkok (Thailand), the Indian Kabaddi team clinched the gold medal. The chief coach of the team was former kabaddi player and coach Flt. Lt. S P Singh. [6]
International competitions
Kabaddi World Cup
Further information: Kabaddi World Cup
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This section does not cite any references or sources. (June 2011) |
Pro kabaddi league
Further information: Pro Kabaddi League
Pro kabaddi league was introduced in 2014 in India based on Indian premier league.The
first edition of the tournament had begun at 26 July 2014 with eight
franchises based at eight different cities in India consisting of
players from all over the world.The team Jaipur pink panthers based at jaipur is owned by Bollywood star Abhishek Bachchan who said he wants to promote kabaddi. The other teams are namely U mumba based at mumbai,bengaluru bulls based ato bengaluru,delhi dabbangs based at delhi,puneri paltans based at Pune,Telugu titans based at vizag,Bengal warriors based at kolkata and patna pirates based at patnaBihar.The opening match was held at mumbai where Amitabh Bachchan was found cheering for his son's team.Aishwarya rai was also present with Abhishek Bachchan.Together with them Bollywood stars Shahrukh Khan,Aamir khan,Sunil Shetty ,Sonali Bendre,Farah Khan,Boman Irani and producer Ronnie Screwvala cheering for his team Jaipur Pink Panthers were present at the stadium.
Indian star cricketer Sachin Tendulkar was present with his wife and daughter who said he enjoyed the speed,agility and strength of the players of the sport very much.
Rakesh Kumar (kabaddi) the captain of the Indian kabaddi team who has received an Arjuna award and also the captain of patna pirates was also present at the inaugural matches who said it is a pleasure to see kabaddi getting recognition through the tournament.
Rakesh Kumar (kabaddi) was the highest bought player in the auction by patna pirates for 12.80 lakhs held before the tournament.
The broadcast rights were bagged by the star sports network .The matches start at 7:45 pm through the month of august on star sports 2 channel in English and star gold channel in Hindi.
World Kabaddi League
Further information: World Kabaddi League
World Kabaddi League has been introduced in 2014.[7] The First Season of the League would be played in August–December 2014. The league follows the Formula 1 touring sports format and will be played across four countries.[8] The first season will be played from August 2014 to December 2014.[9] Indian rapper Yo Yo Honey Singh
bought a team and named in Yo Yo Tigers.Bollywood actors and actress
Akshay Kumar and Sonakshi Sinha also bought a team in WKL United Singh's
is a team of Bollywood actress Sonakshi Sinha [10]Federations
India
The Kabaddi Federation of India (KFI) was founded in 1950, and it compiled a standard set of rules. The Amateur Kabaddi Federation of India (AKFI) was founded in 1973. The AKFI has given new shape to the rules and it has also the rights of modification in the rules. The Asian Kabaddi Federation was founded under the chairmanship of Sharad Pawar.The Governing body of Kabaddi in Asia is Asian Kabaddi Federation (AKF) headed by Mr. Janardan Singh Gehlot. AKF is affiliated to Olympic Council of Asia. Parent body to regulate the game at international level is International Kabaddi Federation (IKF). India won the world cup in December 2013 by defeating Pakistan in finals at Punjab
In 1979, a return test between Bangladesh and India was held at different places of India including Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Punjab. The Asian Kabaddi Championship was successfully arranged in 1980 and India emerged as the champion and Bangladesh as the runners-up. Bangladesh became runners-up again in 1985 in Asian Kabaddi Championship held in Jaipur, India. The other teams included in the tournament were Nepal, Malaysia and Japan. Kabaddi was played as a demonstration sport at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. The game was included for the first time in Asian Games held in Beijing in 1990. Eight countries took part including India, China, Japan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh. India won the gold medal and has since won gold at the following three Asian Games in Hiroshima in 1994, Bangkok in 1998, Busan in 2002, and in Doha 2006.
In 2014, India introduced the Pro Kabaddi League, an eight-city league with games to be played on a caravan basis with each team playing each other twice in July and August, 2014. In a significant value addition to Kabaddi, these were carried live on prime time TV by the international broadcaster, Star Sports for millions to view across India and the world.
Pakistan
The governing body for Kabaddi in Pakistan is Pakistan Kabaddi Federation. Kabaddi is played in all parts of Pakistan, especially rural areas, in one form or the other. It is also popular sport of the sub-continent and in many parts of India and Bangladesh, Kabaddi is played with equal zeal and enthusiasm. Its forms and styles vary from region to region. Malik Mushtaq was the best player of kabbadi in Pakistan. He was declared man of the tournament in Canada at the World Kabbadi Cup 1981.Khalid Randhawa was also best player of kabaddi in PAKISTAN.He was declared man of the tournament in England kabaddi cup 1988. In Pakistan, Faisalabad is known as the nursery of Kabaddi. It has produced many world class players. Lahore, Gujranwala, Qasoor, Nankana Sahib, Sahiwal, Okara, Bahawalpur, Multan, Bahawalnagar are the other centres of kabaddi where circle style kabaddi is very famous. It is also called the Village game of Punjab, Pakistan.Bangladesh
Kabaddi (Bengali: কাবাডি) is a very popular game in Bangladesh, especially in the villages. Often called the 'game of rural Bengal', it is now the National Game of Bangladesh. In some areas Kabaddi is still known as [Ha-Du-Du], but Ha-Du-Du had no definite rules and was played with different rules in different areas. [Ha-Du-Du] was renamed Kabaddi and given the status of the National Game in 1972.The Bangladesh Amateur Kabaddi Federation was formed in 1973. It framed rules and regulations for the national game. In 1974 Bangladesh played a Kabaddi test match with a visiting Indian team, which played test matches with the district teams of Dhaka, Tangail, Dinajpur, Jessore, Faridpur and Comilla. In 1978, the Asian Amateur Kabaddi Federation was formed at a conference of delegates from Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan in the Indian town of Villai. Kabaddi is one of the most popular games in schools of Bangladesh.
Iran
Kabaddi-like games are common in certain rural regions of Iran and in these areas it is a popular game for children and adults. In Iran there are different names that they call this game according to the area. In some areas – especially in the center of Iranian plateau, Khorasan and Mazandaran Kabaddi is known as Zu/Zou (Persian: زو), in Gilan as Do-Do (Persian: دودو), in Khuzestan as Ti-Ti (Persian: تیتی) and in Sistan and Baluchestan as Kabaddi/Kabedi/Kavedi/Kaveddi/Kavaddi (Persian: کودّی، کبدی).[11][12]In Iran, the Community of Kabaddi was formed in 1996, in same year they joined the Asian Kabaddi Federation and in 2001 they joined the International Kabaddi Federation. The Iran Amateur Kabaddi Federation was formed in 2004.[11]
United Kingdom
Kabaddi was brought to the United Kingdom by Indian immigrants and Pakistani immigrants. The governing body for kabaddi in the United Kingdom is the England Kabaddi Federation UK. The UK also played host to the 2013 UK Kabaddi Cup.Women's teams
Women's kabaddi was first introduced in the 2010 Guangzhou Asian Games. India won gold and Thailand were runner-up with silver. Bangladesh and Iran were knocked out in the semi-finals and shared bronze.- Asia
Asia Kabaddi Cup
Further information: Asia Kabaddi Cup
The Asia Kabaddi Cup
has been held twice in consecutive years. The Inaugural tournament was
held in the year 2011 in Iran. In 2012, the Asia Kabaddi Cup was held in
Lahore, Punjab from 1 to 5 November. It is considered one of the biggest events for circle style kabaddi.In 2012 ASIA Kabaddi Cup held in Lahore, Pakistan in 2012 was won by Pakistan against India with a technical win with score 37–31 after Indian team rejected to play further.
UK Kabaddi Cup
Further information: UK Kabaddi Cup
The UK Kabaddi has been happening for many years, but received major recognition during the 2013 UK Kabaddi Cup.
It will be one of the biggest international level kabaddi tournaments
to happen in England. It featured the national Kabaddi teams from, India, England, Pakistan, USA, Canada and a local club team, Golden Temple (SGPC).Kabaddi World Cup
- Men World Cup
Results of Kabaddi World Cup to date:
| Year | Final match |
| 2004 |  India 55 – 27 Iran  |
| 2007 | India 29 – 19 Iran |
| 2010 | India 58 – 24 Pakistan  |
| 2011 | India 59 – 25 Canada  |
| 2012 | India 59 – 22 Pakistan |
| 2013 | India 48 – 39 Pakistan |
- Women World Cup
Results of Kabaddi World Cup to date:
| Year | Final match |
| 2012 | India 25 – 19 Iran |
| 2013 | India 49 - 21 New Zealand
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1ST WORLD CUP KABADDI FOR WOMEN 2012 Final Match PLAYERWISE DETAIL SCORE CARD OF INDIA VERSUS I.R OF IRAN Toss won by Team I.R. OF IRAN, Choice = Court
| 1 Point | 2 Bonus | 3 Other | 4 Catch | 1+2+3+4 Total | Lona point | Total point | Player Name and Chest No. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | 1 | Suvarna Bartakhe | |||||
| Krishna (India) | ||||||||
| 3 | 3 | 3 | Abhilasha Mhatre (India) | |||||
| 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 | Priyanka Negi (India) | ||||
| Rashamita Sahoo (India) | ||||||||
| 7 | 1 | 8 | 8 | Mamatha Poojari – Captain (India) | ||||
| Deepika Henary Joseph – Vice Captain (India) | ||||||||
| Vindyavasini Sinha (India) | ||||||||
| Promila (India) | ||||||||
| 3 | 3 | 3 | Kavita Devi (India) | |||||
| R. Nagalakshmi (India) | ||||||||
| 5 | 5 | 5 | Priyanka (India) | |||||
| 13 | 2 | 0 | 8 | 23 | 2 | 25 | INDIA Team Total | |
| 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | Salimeh Abdollahbakhsh (Iran) | |||
| 1 | 1 | 1 | Farideh Zarif Doost (Iran) | |||||
| 1 | 1 | 1 | Zohreh Tributinezhad (Iran) | |||||
| 2 | 2 | 2 | Zahra Masoumabadi (Iran) | |||||
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | Sedigheh Jafarikalokan (Iran) | |||
| 4 | 3 | 1 | 8 | 8 | Ghazal Khalaj (Iran) | |||
| Roghayeh Abdollahi (Iran) | ||||||||
| Mona Norouzianfar (Iran) | ||||||||
| Hajar Shahin Kamal Aghaei (Iran) | ||||||||
| Nirouyar Fatema (Iran) | ||||||||
| Zahra Raitiminejad ( Manager ) (Iran) | ||||||||
| Azam Maghsodlou ( Head coach ) (Iran) | ||||||||
| 7 | 6 | 0 | 6 | 19 | 0 | 19 | I.R OF IRAN Team Total |
See also
- Films about kabaddi
- Okkadu (2003)
- Kabaddi Kabaddi (2003)
- Ghilli (2004)
- Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu (2009)
- Bheemli Kabadi Jattu (2010)
References
- Gofran Faroqi (2012). "Kabadi". In Sirajul Islam and Ahmed A. Jamal. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
- http://kabaddiikf.com/RULES_Regularikf.doc
- http://www.kabaddiikf.com/history.htm
- "Origin, History and Development of Kabaddi". Retrieved 20 April 2008.
- http://www.scribd.com/doc/13255740/Siddhi-TimesMarch-2009-DrCommander-Selvam
- "India Take Kabaddi Gold". rediff.com. Retrieved 15 September 2012.
- http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/othersports/article-2718133/Kabaddi-Trans-World-Sport-favourite-s-heading-02-Arena-WKL-forms.html
- http://www.worldkabaddileague.net
- http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/others/Worlds-first-kabaddi-league-launched-in-India/articleshow/34743552.cms
- http://ibnlive.in.com/news/rapper-honey-singh-buys-team-in-world-kabaddi-league-names-it-yo-yo-tigers/485294-5-23.html
- تاریخچه کبدی، فدراسیون کبدی جمهوری اسلامی ایران
- کَوَدّی کَوَدّی یا کَبَدی کَبَدی؟، محمد تهامینژاد، انسانشناسی و فرهنگ، سهشنبه، 23 آذر 1389 — 01:05
- "India win first women's Kabaddi World Cup". Hindustan Times. 4 March 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
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This article uses bare URLs for citations, which may be threatened by link rot. (August 2014) |
External links
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kabaddi. |
- World Kabaddi Cup 2013 Updates
- World Kabaddi League 2014
- International Kabaddi Federation
- Asian Amateur Kabaddi Federation
- Amateur Kabaddi Federation of India
- Iran Kabaddi Federation
- Japan Kabaddi Association
- italian kabaddi federation
- International Kabaddi Teams
- India International Kabaddi Team
- A Game Called Kabbadi – slideshow by The New York Times
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Saturday, August 9, 2014
Air Force
Air force
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Air Force (disambiguation) and list of air forces.
- For military aviation conducted by armies and navies, see army aviation and naval aviation.
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This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2013) |
The term "air force" may also refer to a tactical air force or numbered air force, which is an operational formation either within a national air force or comprising several air components from allied nations. Air forces typically consist of a combination of fighters, bombers, helicopters, transport planes and other aircraft.
Many air forces are also responsible for operations of military space, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM), and communications equipment. Some air forces may command and control other air defence assets such as antiaircraft artillery, surface-to-air missiles, or anti-ballistic missile warning networks and defensive systems. Some nations, principally Russia, the former Soviet Union and countries who modelled their militaries along Soviet lines, have an Air Defence Force which is organizationally separate from their air force.
In addition to pilots, air forces have ground support staff who support the aircrew. In a similar manner to civilian airlines, there are supporting ground crew as pilots cannot fly without the assistance of other personnel such as engineers, loadmasters, fuel technicians and mechanics. However, some supporting personnel such as airfield defence troops, weapons engineers and air intelligence staff do not have equivalent roles in civilian organizations.
Contents
History
Main article: Aerial warfare
Heavier-than-air military aircraft
Balloon or flying corps are not generally regarded as examples of an air force.[citation needed] However, with the invention of heavier-than-air craft in the early 20th century, armies and navies began to take interest in this new form of aviation as a means to wage war.The first aviation force in the world was the Aviation Militaire of the French Army formed in 1910, which eventually became L'Armée de l'Air. In 1911, during the Italo-Turkish War, Italy employed aircraft for the first time ever in the world for reconnaissance and bombing missions against Turkish positions on Libyan Territory. The Italian–Turkish war of 1911–1912 was the first in history that featured air attacks by airplanes and dirigible airships.[1] During World War I France, Germany, Italy, the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire all possessed significant forces of bombers and fighters. World War I also saw the appearance of senior commanders who directed aerial warfare and numerous flying aces.
Independent air forces
An independent air force is one which is a separate branch of a nation's armed forces and is, at least nominally, treated as a military service on par with that of older services like navies or armies.The British Royal Air Force was the first independent air force in the world.[2] The RAF was founded on 1 April 1918 by amalgamation the British Army's Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. On establishment the RAF comprised over 20,000 aircraft, was commanded by a Chief of the Air Staff who held the rank of Major General and was governed by its own government ministry (the Air Ministry).
Over the following decades most countries with any substantial military capability established their own independent air forces. The South African Air Force was formed on 1 February 1920 and the Australian Air Force was formed shortly afterwards on 31 March 1921, although it was not until 1922 that the head of the Service was titled as Chief of the Air Staff, placing him on a par with his Australian Army and Navy counterparts. The Canadian Air Force was formed at the end of World War I, and was abolished and reorganized several times between 1918 and 1924. It became the permanent Royal Canadian Air Force when it received the "Royal" title by royal proclamation on 1 April 1924. It did not however become independent of the Canadian Army until 1938 when its head was also designated as Chief of the Air Staff. The Finnish Air Force was established as a separate service on 4 May 1928[3] and the United States Air Force was formed as a separate branch of the American military on 18 September 1947.[4] The Israeli Air Force came into being the with the State of Israel on 18 May 1948, but evolved from the pre-existing Sherut Avir (Air Service) of the Haganah paramilitary. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force was not established until 1954; in World War II Japanese military aviation had been carried out by the Army and Navy. Unlike all these countries, the Mexican Air Force remains an integral part of the Mexican Army.
The world wars
World War I
See also: Aviation in World War I
Germany was the first country to organize regular air attacks on enemy infrastructure with the Luftstreitkräfte. In World War I, it used its zeppelins (airships)
to drop bombs on British cities. At that time, Britain did have
aircraft, though her airships were less advanced than the zeppelins and
were very rarely used for attacking; instead they were usually used to
spy on German U-boats (submarines).Fixed-wing aircraft at the time were quite primitive, being able to achieve velocities comparable to that of modern automobiles and mounting minimal weaponry and equipment. Aerial services were still largely a new venture, and relatively unreliable machines and limited training resulted in stupendously low life expectancies for early military aviators.[citation needed]
World War II
See also: Air warfare of World War II
By the time World War II
began, planes had become much safer, faster, and more reliable. They
were adopted as standard for bombing raids and taking out other aircraft
because they were much faster than airships. The world's largest
military Air Force by the start of the Second World War in 1939 was the Soviet Red Air Force, and although much depleted, it would stage the largest air operations of WWII over the four years of combat with the German Luftwaffe.Arguably the war's most important air operation, known as the Battle of Britain, took place during 1940 over Britain and the English Channel between Britain's Royal Air Force and Germany's Luftwaffe over a period of several months. In the end Britain emerged victorious, and this caused Adolf Hitler to give up his plan to invade Britain. Other prominent air force operations during the Second World War include the Allied bombing of Germany during 1942–1944, and the Red Air Force operations in support of strategic ground offensives on the Eastern Front. The aerial warfare in Pacific Ocean theatre was of a comparable strategic significance to the Battle of Britain but was largely conducted by the US and Japanese naval aviation services and not by air forces.
Strategic bombing
The air force's role of strategic bombing against enemy infrastructure was developed during the 1930s by the Japanese in China and by the Germans during the Spanish Civil War. This role for the bomber was perfected during World War II, during Allied "Thousand Bomber Raid" operations. The need to intercept these bombers, both during the day and at night, accelerated fighter aircraft developments. The war ended when United States Army Air Forces Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan in August 1945.Post World War II
During the 1960s, Canada took the unusual step of merging the Royal Canadian Air Force with the army and the navy to form the unified Canadian Forces, with air assets divided between several commands and a green uniform for everyone. This proved very unpopular[citation needed], and in 1975 Canadian aviation units were rebrigaded under a single organization (Air Command) with a single commander. In 2011 the Canadian Forces Air Command reverted to its pre-1960s name, the Royal Canadian Air Force. Perhaps the latest air force to become independent is the Irish Air Corps, which changed its uniform from army green to blue in the 1990s.
Organization
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See also: Military organization
The organizational structures of air forces vary between nations: some air forces (such as the United States Air Force, the Royal Air Force) are divided into commands, groups and squadrons; others (such as the Soviet Air Force) have an Army-style organizational structure. The modern Royal Canadian Air Force
uses Air Division as the formation between wings and the entire air
command. Like the RAF, Canadian wings consist of squadrons. In the case
of China the Air Force headquarters consists of four departments:
Command, Political, Logistic, and Equipment, which mirrors the four
general departments of the People's Liberation Army.
Below the headquarters, Military Region Air Forces (MRAF) direct
divisions (Fighter, Attack, Bomber), which in turn direct regiments and
squadrons.[5]| Symbol (for Army structure comparison) | Unit Name (USAF/RAF/Other air forces) | No. of personnel | No. of aircraft | No. of subordinate units (USAF/RAF) | Officer in command (USAF/RAF) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| XXXXXX + | Air Force/ Russian Air army | Entire air force | Entire air force | All Major Commands / Commands | Gen / MRAF or Air Chf Mshl |
| XXXXX | Major Command / Command or Tactical Air Force / Russian aviation corps | Varies | Varies | By Region or Duty (subordinate units varies) | Gen / Air Chf Mshl or Air Mshl |
| XX | Numbered Air Force / No RAF Equivalent / Aviation Division /Air Division / Air Brigade | By Region (subordinate units varies) | Varies | 2+ Wing / Groups | Maj-Gen / N/A |
| X | Wing / Group (inc. EAGs) / Russian aviation regiments | 1,000–5000 | 48–100 | 2+ Groups / Wings | Brig-Gen / AVM or Air Cdre |
| III | Group / Wing (inc. EAWs) or Station | 300–1,000 | 17–48 | 3–10 Squadrons / 3–4 Squadrons | Col / Gp Capt or Wg Cdr |
| II | Squadron | 100–300 | 7–16 | 3–4 Flights | Lt Col or Maj / Wg Cdr or Sqn Ldr |
| ••• | Flight | 20–100 | 4–6 | 2 Sections plus maintenance and support crew | Capt / Sqn Ldr or Flt Lt |
| •• | Element or Section | 5–20 | n/a | Junior Officer or Senior NCO | |
| • | Detail | 2–4 | n/a | Junior NCO |
Air armies
Several countries title their air force Air Army, notably France and Spain. In such countries the army is officially called the Land Army, although in common usage army retains its meaning of a land force.However, in the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation the term Air Army also refers to a military formation, and during WWII eighteen Air Armies operated as part of the Red Army Order of Battle as the Soviet Air Forces in World War II. The Air Armies were divided into the air forces of the military district PVO, the Frontal Aviation Air Armies assigned one to each Front, and the Anti-Air Defence Armies that included anti-aircraft guns and interceptors.
See also
Notes
- Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare, pg.19
- Royal Air Force 90th Anniversary History of the RAF
- "FINNISH AIR FORCE AIRCRAFT HISTORY TIMELINE". Pentti Perttula. 8 April 2008. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
- 80 P.L. 253, 61 Stat. 495 (1947); Air Force Link, (2006) "Factsheets: The U.S. Air Force". U.S. Air Force, December 2008. Retrieved on 9 May 2009.
- IISS Military Balance 2012, 233, 237
References
- "AFPC – Air Force Personnel Center", Air Force Personnel Center, Joint Base San Antonio, Texas, 2013, webpage: www.afpc.af.mil.
- "United States Air Force", U.S. Air Force, 2009, webpage (large): Airforce.com (Air Force recruiting site).
- "United States Air Force", U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large): Official Site of the US Air Force (has subpages about the Air Force).
- "United States Air Force Fact Sheet", U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large): US Air Force Fact Sheet.
- "United States Air Force Facebook Official External Presence", U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large): Official US Air Force Facebook page.
- "United States Air Force blog", U.S. Air Force, 2013, webpage (large): Official US Air Force blog.
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